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Educational Psychology : Educational Psychology

Educational Psychology : Educational Psychology: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND   The field of educational psychology was founded by several pioneers in psychology just before the start of the t...

Educational Psychology : Nature of Educational Psychology

Educational Psychology : Nature of Educational Psychology: Nature of Educational Psychology   Educational psychology may be gathered from the following points. An Applied Science.  Educ...

BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING

I) Learning has to change behaviour;
ii) The change should be relatively permanent;
iii) The change should be as a result of experience;
iv) Learning is an internal process;
v) Learning occurs under conditions of directed attention and deliberate effort; and
vi) Learning is distinct from biological maturation and imprinting
Maturation
Maturation, a borrowed concept from Biology, refers to the physiological development of a
growing person. Maturation is specifically used for qualitative changes in the organism which
are not induced by learning. The relationship between maturation and learning is very close,
because learning takes place within a certain level of maturation.

Maturation, has been defined by Gleitman, H. (1996) as programmed growth process which
is relatively unaffected by environmental condition. E.g. walking in humans. For training to
yield effective results, a defined level of maturation is required. For example, learning and
training should start when a child reaches an appropriate level of maturation which implies
concept of readiness for an activity. Teachers and parents must not ignore the child’s level of
maturation otherwise it would be a waste of time and effort to expect a child to perform a task
or learn materials he/she is not matured enough to undertake.
IMPRINTING
Learning is sometimes confused with the psychological concept, imprinting. Imprinting is an
instinctive reaction an organism displays that capitalizes on certain tendencies which appears
whenever the time is ripe. For instance, at certain times after hatching, new duckling can be
induced to follow any moving object nearby. The timing is right and behaviour of following
is inborn which guides certain species of animals such as bird, reptiles or fish to behave in
certain predictable manner. But unlike these other animals, human beings do not have this
genetic code of imprinting. Humans rather behave according to their experience in the course
of their interaction with the environment.
BOREDOM:
Boredom is not permanent. It is often a result of over labouring of self with some mental or
physical activities. After taking enough rest, boredom is removed.
INSTINCT
This is an unlearned response. It is inborn. For instance, sucking of mother’s breast by a new
born baby, cock crowing and neonatal cry are not learning.
REFLEX ACTION
These are some actions that the organism does not have control over. Some of these actions
are heart beat, sneezing, coughing, breathing, etc. some are permanent while some are
temporary. Yet, they cannot be said to be learning.
Based on the above discussions, it could be deduced that:
► not all experiences could produce learning;
► not all changed behaviours are as a result of learning;
► not all stimuli that produce responses are permanent; and
► there are some behaviours that are permanent which are not due to experience.

MEANING OF LEARNING

There is little disagreement among psychologists as to the importance of learning and the
pervasiveness in nearly all forms of human activity; however, there is a marked difference in
the ways they look at learning.
There is no universally acceptable definition of learning, and indeed all psychological
concepts. Talking about learning, it is probably the topic which is closest to the heart of
psychology. A huge body of literature on the subject matter of learning has been piled up by
educational psychologists in their attempt to fathom out the characteristics and applications of
learning . Hence, huge and diverse theories were developed in respect of learning.
Learning cannot be directly observed but can manifest itself in the activities of the individual.
Human beings, more than all other living organisms, have the greater capacity to learn in all
ways, and through language, we can learn things we have neither experience nor observed.
Then what is learning? Several and sometimes varying definitions have been given by
different psychologists on the meaning of learning. These definitions however seem to
converge on certain trends which highlight the characteristics of learning. Myers, D.G. (1993)
defined learning as a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behaviour due to
experience. Similarly, Mukherjee (2002) gave the meaning of learning as an inference from
some performance of the organism resulting in an enduring change of behaviour.
Hengenhann (1982) defined learning as a relatively permanent change in behavioural
potentiality that occurs as a result of reinforced practice.
Some other definitions include:
- Learning is the process of the formation relatively permanent neural circuits through
the simultaneous activity of the elements of the circuits-to-be; such activity is of the
nature of change in cell structures through growth in such a manner as to facilitate the
arousal of the entire circuit when a component element is aroused or activated
(Bugelski, 1956).
- Learning refers to the change in a subject’s behaviour to a given situation brought
about by his repeated experiences in that situation, provided that the behaviour change
cannot be explained on the basis of native response tendencies, maturation or
temporary states of the subject (e.g. fatigue, drugs, alcohol etc.). (Hilgard and Bower,
1975).
Webster Dictionary sums up common usage of the word LEARN as “to gain
knowledge or understanding or skill by study, instruction, or experience.” The word
“gain” in this definition is very important. It implies addition of new knowledge.
From the above definitions, there are key elements that elucidate the nature and
characteristics of learning. These are:
- Learning exhibits itself as a change in behaviour.
- Inference is made about learning by comparing the subject’s initial behaviour before
he was placed in the “Learning Situation” and what behaviour exhibited after the
treatment.
- The change may be an increased capability in performance, altered disposition in
attitude, interest or value.
- This change must not be momentary, it must be relatively permanent. It should be
retained over some period of time.
- Lastly, the change must be distinguishable from the kind of change that is attributed
to growth, such as change in height or the development of muscles through exercise.
When there is evidence of the kind of change given above in behaviour, learning has taken
place.
Behaviour is a neural reaction to a given stimulus and it may be Overt or Covert.
Learning is associated with both overt and covert behaviours.
Thus, psychologists have provided certain criteria for determining whether learning has taken
place. First for learning to be said to have taken place, there must be the element of change in
behaviour overtly or covertly. Second, the change in behaviour as result of fatigue or other
transitory conditions such as use of drugs or alcohol do not constitute learning. The third
criterion is that the change in behaviour must be based on exposure to the environment.
Environment here refers to learning situations or any situation that allows one to gain some
experience. Learning, therefore, involved a change in the behaviours of the individual as a
consequence of his or her experience. This can manifest in the way the individual thinks
(cognitive), acts (psychomotor) or feels (affective). However, the change of behaviour must
not be due to such transitory conditions caused by taking drugs or alcohol; and must not be
due to maturation.
The two definitions that are very acceptable for our purpose are those of Gagne (1970) and
Hilgered and Bower (1975). The two gave a clear picture of the nature of learning.
The two definitions restrict learning to behavioural change that can be accounted for on the
basis of interaction with an environment (i.e. experience). Thus, if a behavioural change can
be shown to be the result of some factor other than experience then we do not consider it to
be learning.

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Educational Psychology : Psychology

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