Evaluation in education

Norm-referenced and Criterion referenced. Norm-referenced testing

There are two types of standardized tests: Norm-referenced and Criterion referenced. Norm-referenced testing measures performance relative to all other students taking the same test. It lets you know how well a student did compare to the rest of the testing population. For example, if a student is ranked in the 86th percentile, that means he/she did better than 86 percent of others who took the test. This type of testing is the most common found among standardized testing. Criterion referenced testing measures factual knowledge of a defined body of material. Multiple-choice tests that people take to get their license or a test in fractions are both examples of this type of testing. In addition to the two main categories of standardized tests, these tests can be divided even further into performance tests or aptitude tests. Performance tests are assessments of what learning has already occurred in a particular subject area, while aptitude tests are assessments of abilities or skills considered important to future success in school. Intelligence tests are also standardized tests that aim to determine how a person can handle problem solving using higher level cognitive thinking. Often just called an IQ test for common use, a typical IQ test asks problems involving pattern recognition and logical reasoning. It then takes into account the time needed and how many questions the person completes correctly, with penalties for guessing. Specific tests and how the results are used change from district to district but intelligence testing is common during the early years of schooling.

(b) Advantages
• It can be obtained easily and available on researcher’s convenience.
• It can be adopted and implemented quickly.
• It reduces or eliminates faculty time demands in instrument development and grading.
• It helps to score objectively.
• It can provide the external validity of test.
• It helps to provide reference group measures.
• It can make longitudinal comparisons.

• It can test large numbers of students.
(c) Disadvantages
• It measures relatively superficial knowledge or learning.
• Norm-referenced data may be less useful than criterion-referenced.
• It may be cost prohibitive to administer as a pre- and post-test.
• It is more summative than formative (may be difficult to isolate what changes are needed).
• It may be difficult to receive results in a timely manner.

Types advantages and dis advantages of Rating Scales

Numerical Rating Scales:
A sequence of numbers is assigned to descriptive Categories; the rater marks a number to indicate the degree to which a characteristic is present
Graphic Rating Scales:
A set of categories described at certain points along the line of a continuum; the rater can mark his or her judgment at any location on the line

Advantages of Rating Scales:  Used for behaviours not easily measured by other means  Quick and easy to complete  User can apply knowledge about the child from other times  Minimum of training required  Easy to design using consistent descriptors (e.g., always, sometimes, rarely, or never)  Can describe the child’s steps toward understanding or mastery
(b) Disadvantages
 Highly subjective (rater error and bias are a common problem).
 Raters may rate a child on the basis of their previous interactions or on an emotional, rather than an objective, basis.
 Ambiguous terms make them unreliable: raters are likely to mark characteristics by using different interpretations of the ratings (e.g., do they all agree on what “sometimes” means?).

what is Rating Scale?

A rating scale is a tool used for assessing the performance of tasks, skill levels, procedures, processes, qualities, quantities, or end products, such as reports, drawings, and computer programs. These are judged at a defined level within a stated range. Rating scales are similar to checklists except that they indicate the degree of accomplishment rather than just yes or no. Hence rating scale used to determine the degree to which the child exhibits a behaviour or the quality of that behavior; each trait is rated on a continuum, the observer decides where the child fits on the scale overall rating scale focuses on:
• Make a qualitative judgment about the extent to which a behavior is present
• Consist of a set of characteristics or qualities to be judged by using a systematic procedure
• Numerical and graphic rating scales are used most frequently

What are the Advantages and disadvantages of Interview?

  Very good technique for getting the information about the complex, emotionally laden subjects.  Can be easily adapted to the ability of the person being interviewed.  Yields a good percentage of returns.
 Yields perfect sample of the general population.
 Data collected by this method is likely to be more correct as compared to the other methods that are used to investigate issues in an in depth way for the data collection
 Discover how individuals think and feel about a topic and why they hold certain opinions
 Investigate the use, effectiveness and usefulness of particular library collections and services
 Inform decision making, strategic planning and resource allocation
Sensitive topics which people may feel uncomfortable discussing in a focus group
 Add a human dimension to impersonal data
 Deepen understanding and explain statistical data.

Disadvantages of interview

 Time consuming process.
 Involves high cost.
 Requires highly skilled interviewer.
 Requires more energy.
 May sometimes involve systematic errors.
 More confusing and a very complicated method.

 Different interviewers may understand and transcribe interviews in different ways.

What are the Types of Interview?

1. Structured Interview
Here, every single detail of the interview is decided in advance. The questions to be asked, the order in which the questions will be asked, the time given to each candidate, the information to be collected from each candidate, etc. is all decided in advance. Structured interview is also called Standardized, Patterned, Directed or Guided interview. Structured interviews are preplanned. They are accurate and precise. All the interviews will be uniform (same). Therefore, there will be consistency and minimum bias in structured interviews.


2. Unstructured Interview
This interview is not planned in detail. Hence it is also called as Non-Directed interview. The question to be asked, the information to be collected from the candidates, etc. are not decided in advance. These interviews are non-planned and therefore, more flexible. Candidates are more relaxed in such interviews. They are encouraged to express themselves about different subjects, based on their expectations, motivations, background, interests, etc. Here the interviewer can make a better judgment of the candidate's personality, potentials, strengths and weaknesses. However, if the interviewer is not efficient then the discussions will lose direction and the interview will be a waste of time and effort.



3. Group Interview
Here, all the candidates or small groups of candidates are interviewed together. The time of the interviewer is saved. A group interview is similar to a group discussion. A topic is given to the group, and they are asked to discuss it. The interviewer carefully watches the candidates. He tries to find out which candidate influences others, who clarifies issues, who summarizes the discussion, who speaks effectively, etc. He tries to judge the behaviour of each candidate in a group situation.



4. Exit Interview

When an employee leaves the company, he is interviewed either by his immediate superior or by the Human Resource Development (HRD) manager. This interview is called an exit interview. Exit interview is taken to find out why the employee is leaving the company. Sometimes, the employee may be asked to withdraw his resignation by providing some incentives. Exit interviews are taken to create a good image of the company in the minds of the employees who are leaving the company. They help the company to make proper Human Resource Development (HRD) policies, to create a favourable work environment, to create employee loyalty and to reduce labour turnover.



5. Depth Interview
This is a semi-structured interview. The candidate has to give detailed information about his background, special interest, etc. He also has to give detailed information about his subject. Depth interview tries to find out if the candidate is an expert in his subject or not. Here, the interviewer must have a good understanding of human behaviour.

6. Stress Interview
The purpose of this interview is to find out how the candidate behaves in a stressful situation. That is, whether the candidate gets angry or gets confused or gets frightened or gets nervous or remains cool in a stressful situation. The candidate who keeps his cool in a stressful situation is selected for the stressful job. Here, the interviewer tries to create a stressful situation during the interview. This is done purposely by asking the candidate rapid questions, criticizing his answers, interrupting him repeatedly, etc. Then the behviour of the interviewee is observed and future educational planning based on his/her stress levels and handling of stress.


7. Individual Interview
This is a 'One-To-One' Interview. It is a verbal and visual interaction between two people, the interviewer and the candidate, for a particular purpose. The purpose of this interview is to match the candidate with the job. It is a two way communication.


8. Informal Interview
Informal interview is an oral interview which can be arranged at any place. Different questions are asked to collect the required information from the candidate. Specific rigid procedure is not followed. It is a friendly interview.

10. Panel Interview
Panel means a selection committee or interview committee that is appointed for interviewing the candidates. The panel may include three or five members. They ask questions to the candidates about different aspects. They give marks to each candidate. The final decision will be taken by all members collectively by rating the candidates. Panel interview is always better than an interview by one interviewer because in a panel interview, collective judgment is used for selecting suitable candidates.
11. Behavioral Interview In a behavioural interview, the interviewer will ask you questions based on common situations of the job you are applying for. The logic behind the behavioral interview is that your future performance will be based on a past performance of a similar situation. You should expect questions that inquire about what you did when you were in some situation and how did you dealt with it. In a behavioral interview, the interviewer wants to see how you deal with certain problems and what you do to solve them.
 12. Phone Interview A phone interview may be for a position where the candidate is not local or for an initial prescreening call to see if they want to invite you in for an in-person interview. You may be asked typical questions or behavioural questions. Most of the time you will schedule an appointment for a phone interview. If the interviewer calls unexpectedly, it's ok to ask them politely to schedule an appointment. On a phone interview, make sure your call waiting is turned off, you are in a quiet room, and you are not eating, drinking or chewing gum.
9. Formal Interview
Formal interview is held in a more formal atmosphere. The interviewer asks pre-planned questions. Formal interview is also called planned interview.

Relationship between Validity and Reliability of a test,

Reliability and validity are two different standards used to gauge the usefulness of a test. Though different, they work together. It would not be beneficial to design a test with good reliability that did not measure what it was intended to measure. The inverse, accurately measuring what we desire to measure with a test that is so flawed that results are not reproducible, is impossible. Reliability is a necessary requirement for validity. This means that you have to have good reliability in order to have validity. Reliability actually puts a cap or limit on validity, and if a test is not reliable, it cannot be valid. Establishing good reliability is only the first part of establishing validity. Validity has to be established separately. Having good reliability does not mean we have good validity, it just means we are measuring something consistently. Now we must establish, what it is that we are measuring consistently. The main point here is reliability is necessary but not sufficient for validity. In short we can say that reliability means noting when the problem is validity.