While studying the philosophical thoughts of a philosopher, we study his thinking in different branches of philosophy. These branches of philosophy are as follows:
METAPHYSICS
Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that studies the ultimate nature of reality or
existence. It asks questions such as ‘What exists?’ or ‘What is real?’ Metaphysicians seek an
irreducible foundation of reality or ‘first principles’ from which absolute knowledge or truth can
be induced and deduced. The term metaphysics is derived from the Greek words “meta” means
(“beyond”, “upon” or “after”) and physika, means (“physics”). Literally it refers ‘those things
after the physics.’ Aristotle’s writings on ‘first philosophy’ came after his treatise on physics,
therefore, Aristotle’s editor, Andronicus of Rhodes, named them metaphysics.
At first, questions like, ‘What is real?’ seem too simple to bother asking. But consider
George Knight’s example about the existence of a floor and one will see that the question has far
reaching implications: What is exactly the nature of the floor upon which you stand? It may seem
to have a rather straightforward existence. It is obviously flat, solid, and smooth; it has a particular
color; it is composed of an identifiable material, such as wood or concrete; and it supports your
weight…Suppose, however, that a physicist enters the room and is questioned about the reality of
the floor. She will reply that the floor is made of molecules; that molecules consist of atoms,
electrons, protons, and neutrons; and these, finally, of electric energy alone. A third position…is
offered by a passing chemist…To him the floor is a hotbed of hydrocarbons associated in a
particular way and subject to certain kinds of environmental influences, such as heat, cold,
wetness, dryness, and oxidation.
It is evident that the question of reality is not as simplistic as it appears. If the reality of a
common floor is confusing, what about the larger problems that presents themselves as mankind
searches for the ultimate reality of the universe?
Metaphysical questions are the most basic to ask because they provide the foundation upon
which all subsequent inquiry is based. Metaphysical questions may be divided into four subsets.
First, the cosmological aspect. Cosmology consists in the study of theories about the origin,
nature, and development of the universe as an orderly system. Questions such as these populate
the realm of cosmology: “How did the universe originate and develop? Did it come about by
accident or design? Does its existence have any purpose?”
A second metaphysical aspect is the theological. Theology is that part of religious theory
that deals with conceptions of and about God. “Is there a God? If so, is there one or more than
one? What are the attributes of God? If God is both all good and all powerful, why does evil
exist? If God exists, what is His relationship to human beings and the ‘real’ world of everyday
life?”
A third subset of metaphysics is the anthropological. Anthropology deals with the study of
human beings and asks questions like the following: What is the relation between mind and body?
Is mind more fundamental than body, with body depending on mind, or vice versa? What is
humanity’s moral status? Are people born good, evil, or morally neutral? To what extent are
individuals free? Do they have free will, or are their thoughts and actions determined by their
environment, inheritance, or a divine being? Does each person have a soul? If so, what is it?
People have obviously adopted different positions on these questions, and those positions influence
their political, social, religious, and educational ideals and practices.
The fourth aspect of metaphysics is the ontological. Ontology is the study of the nature of
existence, or what it means for anything to exist. Several questions are central to ontology: “Is
basic reality found in matter or physical energy (the world we can sense), or is it found in spirit
or spiritual energy? Is it composed of one element (e.g., matter or spirit), or two (e.g., matter
and spirit), or many?” “Is reality orderly and lawful in itself, or is it merely orderable by the
human mind? Is it fixed and stable, or is change its central feature? Is this reality friendly,
unfriendly, or neutral toward humanity?”
EPISTEMOLOGY
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge
and is also referred to as “theory of knowledge”. Etymologically the word epistemology has
been derived from the Greek words episteme, meaning “knowledge, understanding”, and logos,
meaning “study of”. In other words we can say that Epistemology is the study of the nature,
source, and validity of knowledge. It seeks to answer of the basic questions as “What is true?”
and “How do we know?” Thus epistemology covers two areas: the content of thought and thought
itself. Or in educational terms: curriculum and instruction or content and method. The study of
epistemology deals with issues related to the dependability of knowledge and the validity of the
sources through which we gain information.
Epistemology seeks answers to a number of fundamental issues. One is whether reality
can even be known. Skepticism in its narrow sense is the position claiming that people cannot
acquire reliable knowledge and that any search for truth is in vain. That thought was well expressed
by Gorgias (c. 483-376 B.C.), the Greek Sophist who asserted that nothing exists, and that if it
did, we could not know it. A full-blown skepticism would make intelligent action impossible. A
term closely related to skepticism is agnosticism. Agnosticism is a profession of ignorance in
reference to the existence or nonexistence of God.
Most people claim that reality can be known. However, once they have taken that position,
they must decide through what sources reality may be known, and must have some concept of
how to judge the validity of their knowledge. A second issue foundational to epistemology is
whether all truth is relative, or whether some truths are absolute. Is all truth subject to change?
Is it possible that what is true today may be false tomorrow? If the answer is “Yes” to the
previous questions, such truths are relative. If, however, there is Absolute Truth, such Truth is
eternally and universally true irrespective of time or place. If Absolute Truth exists in the universe,
then educators would certainly want to discover it and make it the core of the school curriculum.
Closely related to the issue of the relativity and absoluteness of truth are the questions of whether
knowledge is subjective or objective, and whether there is truth that is independent of human
experience.
A major aspect of epistemology relates to the sources of human knowledge. If one accepts
the fact that there is truth and even Truth in the universe, how can human beings comprehend
such truths? How do they become human knowledge? Central to most people’s answer to that
question is empiricism (knowledge obtained through the senses). Empirical knowledge appears
to be built into the very nature of human experience. Thus, when individuals walk out of doors on
a spring day and see the beauty of the landscape, hear the song of a bird, feel the warm rays of
the sun, and smell the fragrance of the blossoms, they “know” that it is spring. Sensory knowing
for humans is immediate and universal, and in many ways forms the basis of much of human
knowledge.
The existence of sensory data cannot be denied. Most people accept it uncritically as
representing “reality.” The danger of naively embracing this approach is that data obtained from
the human senses have been demonstrated to be both incomplete and undependable. (For example,
most people have been confronted with the contradiction of seeing a stick that looks bent when
partially submerged in water but appears to be straight when examined in the air.) Fatigue,
frustration, and illness also distort and limit sensory perception. In addition, there are sound and
light waves that are inaudible and invisible to unaided human perception.
Humans have invented scientific instruments to extend the range of their senses, but it is
impossible to ascertain the exact dependability of these instruments since no one knows the total
effect of the human mind in recording, interpreting, and distorting sensual perception. Confidence
in these instruments is built upon speculative metaphysical theories whose validity has been
reinforced by experimentation in which predictions have been verified through the use of a
theoretical construct or hypothesis.
In summary, sensory knowledge is built upon assumptions that must be accepted by faith in
the dependability of human sensory mechanisms. The advantage of empirical knowledge is that
many sensory experiences and experiments are open to both replication and public examination.
A second influential source of knowledge throughout the span of human history has been
revelation. Revealed knowledge has been of prime importance in the field of religion. It differs
from all other sources of knowledge because it presupposes a transcendent supernatural reality
that breaks into the natural order. Christians believe that such revelation is God’s communication
concerning the divine will. Believers in supernatural revelation hold that this form of knowledge
has the distinct advantage of being an omniscient source of information that is not available
through other epistemological methods. The truth revealed through this source is believed by
Christians to be absolute and uncontaminated. On the other hand, it is generally realized that
distortion of revealed truth can occur in the process of human interpretation. Some people assert
that a major disadvantage of revealed knowledge is that it must be accepted by faith and cannot
be proved or disproved empirically.
A third source of human knowledge is authority. Authoritative knowledge is accepted as
true because it comes from experts or has been sanctified over time as tradition. In the classroom,
the most common source of information is some authority, such as a textbook, teacher, or
reference work. Accepting authority as a source of knowledge has its advantages as well as its
dangers. Civilization would certainly stagnate if people refused to accept any statement unless
they personally verified it through direct, firsthand experience. On the other hand, if authoritative
knowledge is built upon a foundation of incorrect assumptions, then such knowledge will surely
be distorted.
A fourth source of human knowledge is reason. The view that reasoning, thought, or logic
is the central factor in knowledge is known as rationalism. The rationalist, in emphasizing
humanity’s power of thought and the mind’s contributions to knowledge, is likely to claim that the
senses alone cannot provide universal, valid judgments that are consistent with one another.
From this perspective, the sensations and experiences humans obtain through their senses are
the raw material of knowledge. These sensations must be organized by the mind into a meaningful
system before they become knowledge. Rationalism in a less extreme form claims that people
have the power to know with certainty various truths about the universe that the senses alone
cannot give. In its more extreme form, rationalism claims that humans are capable of arriving at
irrefutable knowledge independently of sensory experience. Formal logic is a tool used by
rationalists. Systems of logic have the advantage of possessing internal consistency, but they risk
being disconnected from the external world. Systems of thought based upon logic are only as
valid as the premises upon which they are built.
A fifth source of knowledge is intuition- the direct apprehension of knowledge that is not
derived from conscious reasoning or immediate sense perception. In the literature dealing with
intuition, one often finds such expressions as “immediate feeling of certainty.” Intuition occurs
beneath the threshold of consciousness and is often experienced as a sudden flash of insight. In
tuition has been claimed under varying circum - stances as a source of both religious and secular
knowledge. Certainly many scientific breakthroughs have been initiated by intuitive hunches that
were confirmed by experimentation.
The weakness or danger of intuition is that it does not appear to be a safe method of
obtaining knowledge when used alone. It goes astray very easily and may lead to absurd claims
unless it is controlled by or checked against other methods of knowing. Intuitive knowledge,
however, has the distinct advantage of being able to bypass the limitations of human experience.
At this juncture, it should be noted that no one source of information is capable of supplying
people with all knowledge. The various sources should be seen as complementary rather than
antagonistic. It is true, however, that most people choose one source as being more basic than,
or preferable to, the others. That most basic source is then used as a benchmark for testing other
sources of knowledge. For example, in the contemporary world, knowledge obtained empirically
is generally seen as the most basic and reliable type.
AXIOLOGY
Axiology, which stems from two Grrek words- “Axios” means “value, worth” and “logos”
means “reason/ theory/ symbol / science/study of”. Hence, Axiology is the philosophical study
of value and “value” originally meant the worth of something. Axiology asks the questions: What
is a value? Where do values come from? How do we justify our values? How do we know what
is valuable? What is the relationship between values and knowledge? What kinds of values exist?
Can it be demonstrated that one value is better than another? Who benefits from values? etc.
The question of values deals with notions of what a person or a society regards as good or
preferable. Axiology, like metaphysics and epistemology, stands at the very foundation of the
educational process. A major aspect of education is the development of values. And in that
context, the classroom is an axiological theater in which teachers cannot hide their moral selves.
By their actions, teachers constantly instruct groups of highly impressionable young people who
assimilate and imitate their teachers’ value structures to a significant extent.
Axiology has two main branches- ethics and aesthetics. Ethics is the study of moral values
and conduct. “How should I behave?” is an ethical question. Ethical theory seeks to provide right
values as the foundation for right actions. What is good and evil, right and wrong? Is it ever right
to take something that does not belong to you? In many ways, ethics is the crucial issue of our
times. World societies have made unprecedented technological advances, but have not advanced
significantly, if at all, in their ethical and moral conceptions. Both as individuals and within
societies, human beings exist in a world in which they cannot avoid meaningful ethical decisions.
Thus, schools must teach ethical concepts to their students. The problem is that people embrace
different ethical bases and feel quite negatively about having their children “indoctrinated” in a
moral view that is alien to their fundamental beliefs. That fact has put schools at the center of the
various “culture wars” that have rocked society at large. It has also led Adventists and other
Christians to establish their own schools. The desire to pass on to their children a specific system
of moral values is a powerful motivator for most parents.
At the heart of ethical discussions are such questions as, “Are ethical standards and moral
values absolute or relative?” “Do universal moral values exist?” “Can morality be separated
from religion?” and “Who or what forms the basis of ethical authority?”
The second major branch of axiology is aesthetics. Aesthetics asks such questions as “What
is beautiful?” and “What should I like?” How do we recognize a great piece of music? Art? Can
there be beauty in destruction? Aesthetics is the realm of value that searches for the principles
governing the creation and appreciation of beauty and art in both “the higher arts” and the things
of daily life, such as school architecture, television programs, and billboards. Evaluations of
beauty and ugliness fall into the aesthetic realm. Thus aesthetic valuation is a part of daily life
and cannot be avoided. The aesthetic experience is tied to the cognitive world of intellectual
understanding, but also soars beyond the cognitive into the affective realm because of its focus on
feeling and emotion. Aesthetic experiences enable people to move beyond the limits imposed by
purely rational thought and the inadequacies of human language. A picture, song, or story may
create an impression in a person that could never be conveyed through logical argument.
Human beings are aesthetic beings; thus, it is equally impossible to avoid teaching aesthetics
in the school, home, media, or church as it is to avoid inculcating ethical values. However, the
realm of aesthetics does not exist in a vacuum. To the contrary, aesthetic belief is directly
related to other aspects of people’s philosophy. For example, if subjectivity and randomness are
embraced in epistemology and metaphysics, they will be reflected in both aesthetics and ethics.
People’s aesthetic values reflect their total philosophy.
Philosophy of Sciences.
This branch of philosophy is concerned with the philosophical examination of the postulates and conclusions of different sciences.
Philosophies of Social Science.
The philosophical problems in different social sciences give birth to different branches of philosophy of which the main are as follows:
(i) Philosophies of Education. This is concerned with the aim of education and the basic philosophical problems arising in the field of education.
(ii) Social Philosophy. This branch of philosophy discusses the philosophical basis of social processes and social institutions.
(iii) Political Philosophy. This branch of philosophy is concerned with the forms of government, forms of state and other basic problems arising in the political field.
METAPHYSICS
Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that studies the ultimate nature of reality or
existence. It asks questions such as ‘What exists?’ or ‘What is real?’ Metaphysicians seek an
irreducible foundation of reality or ‘first principles’ from which absolute knowledge or truth can
be induced and deduced. The term metaphysics is derived from the Greek words “meta” means
(“beyond”, “upon” or “after”) and physika, means (“physics”). Literally it refers ‘those things
after the physics.’ Aristotle’s writings on ‘first philosophy’ came after his treatise on physics,
therefore, Aristotle’s editor, Andronicus of Rhodes, named them metaphysics.
At first, questions like, ‘What is real?’ seem too simple to bother asking. But consider
George Knight’s example about the existence of a floor and one will see that the question has far
reaching implications: What is exactly the nature of the floor upon which you stand? It may seem
to have a rather straightforward existence. It is obviously flat, solid, and smooth; it has a particular
color; it is composed of an identifiable material, such as wood or concrete; and it supports your
weight…Suppose, however, that a physicist enters the room and is questioned about the reality of
the floor. She will reply that the floor is made of molecules; that molecules consist of atoms,
electrons, protons, and neutrons; and these, finally, of electric energy alone. A third position…is
offered by a passing chemist…To him the floor is a hotbed of hydrocarbons associated in a
particular way and subject to certain kinds of environmental influences, such as heat, cold,
wetness, dryness, and oxidation.
It is evident that the question of reality is not as simplistic as it appears. If the reality of a
common floor is confusing, what about the larger problems that presents themselves as mankind
searches for the ultimate reality of the universe?
Metaphysical questions are the most basic to ask because they provide the foundation upon
which all subsequent inquiry is based. Metaphysical questions may be divided into four subsets.
First, the cosmological aspect. Cosmology consists in the study of theories about the origin,
nature, and development of the universe as an orderly system. Questions such as these populate
the realm of cosmology: “How did the universe originate and develop? Did it come about by
accident or design? Does its existence have any purpose?”
A second metaphysical aspect is the theological. Theology is that part of religious theory
that deals with conceptions of and about God. “Is there a God? If so, is there one or more than
one? What are the attributes of God? If God is both all good and all powerful, why does evil
exist? If God exists, what is His relationship to human beings and the ‘real’ world of everyday
life?”
A third subset of metaphysics is the anthropological. Anthropology deals with the study of
human beings and asks questions like the following: What is the relation between mind and body?
Is mind more fundamental than body, with body depending on mind, or vice versa? What is
humanity’s moral status? Are people born good, evil, or morally neutral? To what extent are
individuals free? Do they have free will, or are their thoughts and actions determined by their
environment, inheritance, or a divine being? Does each person have a soul? If so, what is it?
People have obviously adopted different positions on these questions, and those positions influence
their political, social, religious, and educational ideals and practices.
The fourth aspect of metaphysics is the ontological. Ontology is the study of the nature of
existence, or what it means for anything to exist. Several questions are central to ontology: “Is
basic reality found in matter or physical energy (the world we can sense), or is it found in spirit
or spiritual energy? Is it composed of one element (e.g., matter or spirit), or two (e.g., matter
and spirit), or many?” “Is reality orderly and lawful in itself, or is it merely orderable by the
human mind? Is it fixed and stable, or is change its central feature? Is this reality friendly,
unfriendly, or neutral toward humanity?”
EPISTEMOLOGY
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge
and is also referred to as “theory of knowledge”. Etymologically the word epistemology has
been derived from the Greek words episteme, meaning “knowledge, understanding”, and logos,
meaning “study of”. In other words we can say that Epistemology is the study of the nature,
source, and validity of knowledge. It seeks to answer of the basic questions as “What is true?”
and “How do we know?” Thus epistemology covers two areas: the content of thought and thought
itself. Or in educational terms: curriculum and instruction or content and method. The study of
epistemology deals with issues related to the dependability of knowledge and the validity of the
sources through which we gain information.
Epistemology seeks answers to a number of fundamental issues. One is whether reality
can even be known. Skepticism in its narrow sense is the position claiming that people cannot
acquire reliable knowledge and that any search for truth is in vain. That thought was well expressed
by Gorgias (c. 483-376 B.C.), the Greek Sophist who asserted that nothing exists, and that if it
did, we could not know it. A full-blown skepticism would make intelligent action impossible. A
term closely related to skepticism is agnosticism. Agnosticism is a profession of ignorance in
reference to the existence or nonexistence of God.
Most people claim that reality can be known. However, once they have taken that position,
they must decide through what sources reality may be known, and must have some concept of
how to judge the validity of their knowledge. A second issue foundational to epistemology is
whether all truth is relative, or whether some truths are absolute. Is all truth subject to change?
Is it possible that what is true today may be false tomorrow? If the answer is “Yes” to the
previous questions, such truths are relative. If, however, there is Absolute Truth, such Truth is
eternally and universally true irrespective of time or place. If Absolute Truth exists in the universe,
then educators would certainly want to discover it and make it the core of the school curriculum.
Closely related to the issue of the relativity and absoluteness of truth are the questions of whether
knowledge is subjective or objective, and whether there is truth that is independent of human
experience.
A major aspect of epistemology relates to the sources of human knowledge. If one accepts
the fact that there is truth and even Truth in the universe, how can human beings comprehend
such truths? How do they become human knowledge? Central to most people’s answer to that
question is empiricism (knowledge obtained through the senses). Empirical knowledge appears
to be built into the very nature of human experience. Thus, when individuals walk out of doors on
a spring day and see the beauty of the landscape, hear the song of a bird, feel the warm rays of
the sun, and smell the fragrance of the blossoms, they “know” that it is spring. Sensory knowing
for humans is immediate and universal, and in many ways forms the basis of much of human
knowledge.
The existence of sensory data cannot be denied. Most people accept it uncritically as
representing “reality.” The danger of naively embracing this approach is that data obtained from
the human senses have been demonstrated to be both incomplete and undependable. (For example,
most people have been confronted with the contradiction of seeing a stick that looks bent when
partially submerged in water but appears to be straight when examined in the air.) Fatigue,
frustration, and illness also distort and limit sensory perception. In addition, there are sound and
light waves that are inaudible and invisible to unaided human perception.
Humans have invented scientific instruments to extend the range of their senses, but it is
impossible to ascertain the exact dependability of these instruments since no one knows the total
effect of the human mind in recording, interpreting, and distorting sensual perception. Confidence
in these instruments is built upon speculative metaphysical theories whose validity has been
reinforced by experimentation in which predictions have been verified through the use of a
theoretical construct or hypothesis.
In summary, sensory knowledge is built upon assumptions that must be accepted by faith in
the dependability of human sensory mechanisms. The advantage of empirical knowledge is that
many sensory experiences and experiments are open to both replication and public examination.
A second influential source of knowledge throughout the span of human history has been
revelation. Revealed knowledge has been of prime importance in the field of religion. It differs
from all other sources of knowledge because it presupposes a transcendent supernatural reality
that breaks into the natural order. Christians believe that such revelation is God’s communication
concerning the divine will. Believers in supernatural revelation hold that this form of knowledge
has the distinct advantage of being an omniscient source of information that is not available
through other epistemological methods. The truth revealed through this source is believed by
Christians to be absolute and uncontaminated. On the other hand, it is generally realized that
distortion of revealed truth can occur in the process of human interpretation. Some people assert
that a major disadvantage of revealed knowledge is that it must be accepted by faith and cannot
be proved or disproved empirically.
A third source of human knowledge is authority. Authoritative knowledge is accepted as
true because it comes from experts or has been sanctified over time as tradition. In the classroom,
the most common source of information is some authority, such as a textbook, teacher, or
reference work. Accepting authority as a source of knowledge has its advantages as well as its
dangers. Civilization would certainly stagnate if people refused to accept any statement unless
they personally verified it through direct, firsthand experience. On the other hand, if authoritative
knowledge is built upon a foundation of incorrect assumptions, then such knowledge will surely
be distorted.
A fourth source of human knowledge is reason. The view that reasoning, thought, or logic
is the central factor in knowledge is known as rationalism. The rationalist, in emphasizing
humanity’s power of thought and the mind’s contributions to knowledge, is likely to claim that the
senses alone cannot provide universal, valid judgments that are consistent with one another.
From this perspective, the sensations and experiences humans obtain through their senses are
the raw material of knowledge. These sensations must be organized by the mind into a meaningful
system before they become knowledge. Rationalism in a less extreme form claims that people
have the power to know with certainty various truths about the universe that the senses alone
cannot give. In its more extreme form, rationalism claims that humans are capable of arriving at
irrefutable knowledge independently of sensory experience. Formal logic is a tool used by
rationalists. Systems of logic have the advantage of possessing internal consistency, but they risk
being disconnected from the external world. Systems of thought based upon logic are only as
valid as the premises upon which they are built.
A fifth source of knowledge is intuition- the direct apprehension of knowledge that is not
derived from conscious reasoning or immediate sense perception. In the literature dealing with
intuition, one often finds such expressions as “immediate feeling of certainty.” Intuition occurs
beneath the threshold of consciousness and is often experienced as a sudden flash of insight. In
tuition has been claimed under varying circum - stances as a source of both religious and secular
knowledge. Certainly many scientific breakthroughs have been initiated by intuitive hunches that
were confirmed by experimentation.
The weakness or danger of intuition is that it does not appear to be a safe method of
obtaining knowledge when used alone. It goes astray very easily and may lead to absurd claims
unless it is controlled by or checked against other methods of knowing. Intuitive knowledge,
however, has the distinct advantage of being able to bypass the limitations of human experience.
At this juncture, it should be noted that no one source of information is capable of supplying
people with all knowledge. The various sources should be seen as complementary rather than
antagonistic. It is true, however, that most people choose one source as being more basic than,
or preferable to, the others. That most basic source is then used as a benchmark for testing other
sources of knowledge. For example, in the contemporary world, knowledge obtained empirically
is generally seen as the most basic and reliable type.
AXIOLOGY
Axiology, which stems from two Grrek words- “Axios” means “value, worth” and “logos”
means “reason/ theory/ symbol / science/study of”. Hence, Axiology is the philosophical study
of value and “value” originally meant the worth of something. Axiology asks the questions: What
is a value? Where do values come from? How do we justify our values? How do we know what
is valuable? What is the relationship between values and knowledge? What kinds of values exist?
Can it be demonstrated that one value is better than another? Who benefits from values? etc.
The question of values deals with notions of what a person or a society regards as good or
preferable. Axiology, like metaphysics and epistemology, stands at the very foundation of the
educational process. A major aspect of education is the development of values. And in that
context, the classroom is an axiological theater in which teachers cannot hide their moral selves.
By their actions, teachers constantly instruct groups of highly impressionable young people who
assimilate and imitate their teachers’ value structures to a significant extent.
Axiology has two main branches- ethics and aesthetics. Ethics is the study of moral values
and conduct. “How should I behave?” is an ethical question. Ethical theory seeks to provide right
values as the foundation for right actions. What is good and evil, right and wrong? Is it ever right
to take something that does not belong to you? In many ways, ethics is the crucial issue of our
times. World societies have made unprecedented technological advances, but have not advanced
significantly, if at all, in their ethical and moral conceptions. Both as individuals and within
societies, human beings exist in a world in which they cannot avoid meaningful ethical decisions.
Thus, schools must teach ethical concepts to their students. The problem is that people embrace
different ethical bases and feel quite negatively about having their children “indoctrinated” in a
moral view that is alien to their fundamental beliefs. That fact has put schools at the center of the
various “culture wars” that have rocked society at large. It has also led Adventists and other
Christians to establish their own schools. The desire to pass on to their children a specific system
of moral values is a powerful motivator for most parents.
At the heart of ethical discussions are such questions as, “Are ethical standards and moral
values absolute or relative?” “Do universal moral values exist?” “Can morality be separated
from religion?” and “Who or what forms the basis of ethical authority?”
The second major branch of axiology is aesthetics. Aesthetics asks such questions as “What
is beautiful?” and “What should I like?” How do we recognize a great piece of music? Art? Can
there be beauty in destruction? Aesthetics is the realm of value that searches for the principles
governing the creation and appreciation of beauty and art in both “the higher arts” and the things
of daily life, such as school architecture, television programs, and billboards. Evaluations of
beauty and ugliness fall into the aesthetic realm. Thus aesthetic valuation is a part of daily life
and cannot be avoided. The aesthetic experience is tied to the cognitive world of intellectual
understanding, but also soars beyond the cognitive into the affective realm because of its focus on
feeling and emotion. Aesthetic experiences enable people to move beyond the limits imposed by
purely rational thought and the inadequacies of human language. A picture, song, or story may
create an impression in a person that could never be conveyed through logical argument.
Human beings are aesthetic beings; thus, it is equally impossible to avoid teaching aesthetics
in the school, home, media, or church as it is to avoid inculcating ethical values. However, the
realm of aesthetics does not exist in a vacuum. To the contrary, aesthetic belief is directly
related to other aspects of people’s philosophy. For example, if subjectivity and randomness are
embraced in epistemology and metaphysics, they will be reflected in both aesthetics and ethics.
People’s aesthetic values reflect their total philosophy.
Philosophy of Sciences.
This branch of philosophy is concerned with the philosophical examination of the postulates and conclusions of different sciences.
Philosophies of Social Science.
The philosophical problems in different social sciences give birth to different branches of philosophy of which the main are as follows:
(i) Philosophies of Education. This is concerned with the aim of education and the basic philosophical problems arising in the field of education.
(ii) Social Philosophy. This branch of philosophy discusses the philosophical basis of social processes and social institutions.
(iii) Political Philosophy. This branch of philosophy is concerned with the forms of government, forms of state and other basic problems arising in the political field.
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