Philosophy is the search for knowledge. This search is critical. Hence, the first problem which arises before a philosopher is about the nature of knowledge and its limitations. Therefore, epistemology is the most fundamental branch of philosophy. It discusses philosophically truth, falsehood, validity of knowledge, limits of knowledge and nature of knowledge, knower and known etc.
Etymologically the word epistemology has
been derived from the Greek words episteme, meaning “knowledge, understanding”, and logos,
meaning “study of”. In other words we can say that Epistemology is the study of the nature,
source, and validity of knowledge. It seeks to answer of the basic questions as “What is true?”
and “How do we know?” Thus epistemology covers two areas: the content of thought and thought
itself. Or in educational terms: curriculum and instruction or content and method. The study of
epistemology deals with issues related to the dependability of knowledge and the validity of the
sources through which we gain information.
Epistemology seeks answers to a number of fundamental issues. One is whether reality
can even be known. Skepticism in its narrow sense is the position claiming that people cannot
acquire reliable knowledge and that any search for truth is in vain. That thought was well expressed
by Gorgias (c. 483-376 B.C.), the Greek Sophist who asserted that nothing exists, and that if it
did, we could not know it. A full-blown skepticism would make intelligent action impossible. A
term closely related to skepticism is agnosticism. Agnosticism is a profession of ignorance in
reference to the existence or nonexistence of God.
Most people claim that reality can be known. However, once they have taken that position,
they must decide through what sources reality may be known, and must have some concept of
how to judge the validity of their knowledge. A second issue foundational to epistemology is
whether all truth is relative, or whether some truths are absolute. Is all truth subject to change?
Is it possible that what is true today may be false tomorrow? If the answer is “Yes” to the
previous questions, such truths are relative. If, however, there is Absolute Truth, such Truth is
eternally and universally true irrespective of time or place. If Absolute Truth exists in the universe,
then educators would certainly want to discover it and make it the core of the school curriculum.
Closely related to the issue of the relativity and absoluteness of truth are the questions of whether
knowledge is subjective or objective, and whether there is truth that is independent of human
experience.
A major aspect of epistemology relates to the sources of human knowledge. If one accepts
the fact that there is truth and even Truth in the universe, how can human beings comprehend
such truths? How do they become human knowledge? Central to most people’s answer to that
question is empiricism (knowledge obtained through the senses). Empirical knowledge appears
to be built into the very nature of human experience. Thus, when individuals walk out of doors on
a spring day and see the beauty of the landscape, hear the song of a bird, feel the warm rays of
the sun, and smell the fragrance of the blossoms, they “know” that it is spring. Sensory knowing
for humans is immediate and universal, and in many ways forms the basis of much of human
knowledge.
The existence of sensory data cannot be denied. Most people accept it uncritically as
representing “reality.” The danger of naively embracing this approach is that data obtained from
the human senses have been demonstrated to be both incomplete and undependable. (For example,
most people have been confronted with the contradiction of seeing a stick that looks bent when
partially submerged in water but appears to be straight when examined in the air.) Fatigue,
frustration, and illness also distort and limit sensory perception. In addition, there are sound and
light waves that are inaudible and invisible to unaided human perception.
Humans have invented scientific instruments to extend the range of their senses, but it is
impossible to ascertain the exact dependability of these instruments since no one knows the total
effect of the human mind in recording, interpreting, and distorting sensual perception. Confidence
in these instruments is built upon speculative metaphysical theories whose validity has been
reinforced by experimentation in which predictions have been verified through the use of a
theoretical construct or hypothesis.
In summary, sensory knowledge is built upon assumptions that must be accepted by faith in
the dependability of human sensory mechanisms. The advantage of empirical knowledge is that
many sensory experiences and experiments are open to both replication and public examination.
A second influential source of knowledge throughout the span of human history has been
revelation. Revealed knowledge has been of prime importance in the field of religion. It differs
from all other sources of knowledge because it presupposes a transcendent supernatural reality
that breaks into the natural order. Christians believe that such revelation is God’s communication
concerning the divine will. Believers in supernatural revelation hold that this form of knowledge
has the distinct advantage of being an omniscient source of information that is not available
through other epistemological methods. The truth revealed through this source is believed by
Christians to be absolute and uncontaminated. On the other hand, it is generally realized that
distortion of revealed truth can occur in the process of human interpretation. Some people assert
that a major disadvantage of revealed knowledge is that it must be accepted by faith and cannot
be proved or disproved empirically.
A third source of human knowledge is authority. Authoritative knowledge is accepted as
true because it comes from experts or has been sanctified over time as tradition. In the classroom,
the most common source of information is some authority, such as a textbook, teacher, or
reference work. Accepting authority as a source of knowledge has its advantages as well as its
dangers. Civilization would certainly stagnate if people refused to accept any statement unless
they personally verified it through direct, firsthand experience. On the other hand, if authoritative
knowledge is built upon a foundation of incorrect assumptions, then such knowledge will surely
be distorted.
A fourth source of human knowledge is reason. The view that reasoning, thought, or logic
is the central factor in knowledge is known as rationalism. The rationalist, in emphasizing
humanity’s power of thought and the mind’s contributions to knowledge, is likely to claim that the
senses alone cannot provide universal, valid judgments that are consistent with one another.
From this perspective, the sensations and experiences humans obtain through their senses are
the raw material of knowledge. These sensations must be organized by the mind into a meaningful
system before they become knowledge. Rationalism in a less extreme form claims that people
have the power to know with certainty various truths about the universe that the senses alone
cannot give. In its more extreme form, rationalism claims that humans are capable of arriving at
irrefutable knowledge independently of sensory experience. Formal logic is a tool used by
rationalists. Systems of logic have the advantage of possessing internal consistency, but they risk
being disconnected from the external world. Systems of thought based upon logic are only as
valid as the premises upon which they are built.
A fifth source of knowledge is intuition- the direct apprehension of knowledge that is not
derived from conscious reasoning or immediate sense perception. In the literature dealing with
intuition, one often finds such expressions as “immediate feeling of certainty.” Intuition occurs
beneath the threshold of consciousness and is often experienced as a sudden flash of insight. In
tuition has been claimed under varying circum - stances as a source of both religious and secular
knowledge. Certainly many scientific breakthroughs have been initiated by intuitive hunches that
were confirmed by experimentation.
The weakness or danger of intuition is that it does not appear to be a safe method of
obtaining knowledge when used alone. It goes astray very easily and may lead to absurd claims
unless it is controlled by or checked against other methods of knowing. Intuitive knowledge,
however, has the distinct advantage of being able to bypass the limitations of human experience.
At this juncture, it should be noted that no one source of information is capable of supplying
people with all knowledge. The various sources should be seen as complementary rather than
antagonistic. It is true, however, that most people choose one source as being more basic than,
or preferable to, the others. That most basic source is then used as a benchmark for testing other
sources of knowledge. For example, in the contemporary world, knowledge obtained empirically
is generally seen as the most basic and reliable type.
Etymologically the word epistemology has
been derived from the Greek words episteme, meaning “knowledge, understanding”, and logos,
meaning “study of”. In other words we can say that Epistemology is the study of the nature,
source, and validity of knowledge. It seeks to answer of the basic questions as “What is true?”
and “How do we know?” Thus epistemology covers two areas: the content of thought and thought
itself. Or in educational terms: curriculum and instruction or content and method. The study of
epistemology deals with issues related to the dependability of knowledge and the validity of the
sources through which we gain information.
Epistemology seeks answers to a number of fundamental issues. One is whether reality
can even be known. Skepticism in its narrow sense is the position claiming that people cannot
acquire reliable knowledge and that any search for truth is in vain. That thought was well expressed
by Gorgias (c. 483-376 B.C.), the Greek Sophist who asserted that nothing exists, and that if it
did, we could not know it. A full-blown skepticism would make intelligent action impossible. A
term closely related to skepticism is agnosticism. Agnosticism is a profession of ignorance in
reference to the existence or nonexistence of God.
Most people claim that reality can be known. However, once they have taken that position,
they must decide through what sources reality may be known, and must have some concept of
how to judge the validity of their knowledge. A second issue foundational to epistemology is
whether all truth is relative, or whether some truths are absolute. Is all truth subject to change?
Is it possible that what is true today may be false tomorrow? If the answer is “Yes” to the
previous questions, such truths are relative. If, however, there is Absolute Truth, such Truth is
eternally and universally true irrespective of time or place. If Absolute Truth exists in the universe,
then educators would certainly want to discover it and make it the core of the school curriculum.
Closely related to the issue of the relativity and absoluteness of truth are the questions of whether
knowledge is subjective or objective, and whether there is truth that is independent of human
experience.
A major aspect of epistemology relates to the sources of human knowledge. If one accepts
the fact that there is truth and even Truth in the universe, how can human beings comprehend
such truths? How do they become human knowledge? Central to most people’s answer to that
question is empiricism (knowledge obtained through the senses). Empirical knowledge appears
to be built into the very nature of human experience. Thus, when individuals walk out of doors on
a spring day and see the beauty of the landscape, hear the song of a bird, feel the warm rays of
the sun, and smell the fragrance of the blossoms, they “know” that it is spring. Sensory knowing
for humans is immediate and universal, and in many ways forms the basis of much of human
knowledge.
The existence of sensory data cannot be denied. Most people accept it uncritically as
representing “reality.” The danger of naively embracing this approach is that data obtained from
the human senses have been demonstrated to be both incomplete and undependable. (For example,
most people have been confronted with the contradiction of seeing a stick that looks bent when
partially submerged in water but appears to be straight when examined in the air.) Fatigue,
frustration, and illness also distort and limit sensory perception. In addition, there are sound and
light waves that are inaudible and invisible to unaided human perception.
Humans have invented scientific instruments to extend the range of their senses, but it is
impossible to ascertain the exact dependability of these instruments since no one knows the total
effect of the human mind in recording, interpreting, and distorting sensual perception. Confidence
in these instruments is built upon speculative metaphysical theories whose validity has been
reinforced by experimentation in which predictions have been verified through the use of a
theoretical construct or hypothesis.
In summary, sensory knowledge is built upon assumptions that must be accepted by faith in
the dependability of human sensory mechanisms. The advantage of empirical knowledge is that
many sensory experiences and experiments are open to both replication and public examination.
A second influential source of knowledge throughout the span of human history has been
revelation. Revealed knowledge has been of prime importance in the field of religion. It differs
from all other sources of knowledge because it presupposes a transcendent supernatural reality
that breaks into the natural order. Christians believe that such revelation is God’s communication
concerning the divine will. Believers in supernatural revelation hold that this form of knowledge
has the distinct advantage of being an omniscient source of information that is not available
through other epistemological methods. The truth revealed through this source is believed by
Christians to be absolute and uncontaminated. On the other hand, it is generally realized that
distortion of revealed truth can occur in the process of human interpretation. Some people assert
that a major disadvantage of revealed knowledge is that it must be accepted by faith and cannot
be proved or disproved empirically.
A third source of human knowledge is authority. Authoritative knowledge is accepted as
true because it comes from experts or has been sanctified over time as tradition. In the classroom,
the most common source of information is some authority, such as a textbook, teacher, or
reference work. Accepting authority as a source of knowledge has its advantages as well as its
dangers. Civilization would certainly stagnate if people refused to accept any statement unless
they personally verified it through direct, firsthand experience. On the other hand, if authoritative
knowledge is built upon a foundation of incorrect assumptions, then such knowledge will surely
be distorted.
A fourth source of human knowledge is reason. The view that reasoning, thought, or logic
is the central factor in knowledge is known as rationalism. The rationalist, in emphasizing
humanity’s power of thought and the mind’s contributions to knowledge, is likely to claim that the
senses alone cannot provide universal, valid judgments that are consistent with one another.
From this perspective, the sensations and experiences humans obtain through their senses are
the raw material of knowledge. These sensations must be organized by the mind into a meaningful
system before they become knowledge. Rationalism in a less extreme form claims that people
have the power to know with certainty various truths about the universe that the senses alone
cannot give. In its more extreme form, rationalism claims that humans are capable of arriving at
irrefutable knowledge independently of sensory experience. Formal logic is a tool used by
rationalists. Systems of logic have the advantage of possessing internal consistency, but they risk
being disconnected from the external world. Systems of thought based upon logic are only as
valid as the premises upon which they are built.
A fifth source of knowledge is intuition- the direct apprehension of knowledge that is not
derived from conscious reasoning or immediate sense perception. In the literature dealing with
intuition, one often finds such expressions as “immediate feeling of certainty.” Intuition occurs
beneath the threshold of consciousness and is often experienced as a sudden flash of insight. In
tuition has been claimed under varying circum - stances as a source of both religious and secular
knowledge. Certainly many scientific breakthroughs have been initiated by intuitive hunches that
were confirmed by experimentation.
The weakness or danger of intuition is that it does not appear to be a safe method of
obtaining knowledge when used alone. It goes astray very easily and may lead to absurd claims
unless it is controlled by or checked against other methods of knowing. Intuitive knowledge,
however, has the distinct advantage of being able to bypass the limitations of human experience.
At this juncture, it should be noted that no one source of information is capable of supplying
people with all knowledge. The various sources should be seen as complementary rather than
antagonistic. It is true, however, that most people choose one source as being more basic than,
or preferable to, the others. That most basic source is then used as a benchmark for testing other
sources of knowledge. For example, in the contemporary world, knowledge obtained empirically
is generally seen as the most basic and reliable type.
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