what is Epistemology?

Philosophy is the search for knowledge. This search is critical. Hence, the first problem which arises before a philosopher is about the nature of knowledge and its limitations. Therefore, epistemology is the most fundamental branch of philosophy. It discusses philosophically truth, falsehood, validity of knowledge, limits of knowledge and nature of knowledge, knower and known etc.

Etymologically the word epistemology has
been derived from the Greek words episteme, meaning “knowledge, understanding”, and logos,
meaning “study of”. In other words we can say that Epistemology is the study of the nature,
source, and validity of knowledge. It seeks to answer of the basic questions as “What is true?”
and “How do we know?” Thus epistemology covers two areas: the content of thought and thought
itself. Or in educational terms: curriculum and instruction or content and method. The study of
epistemology deals with issues related to the dependability of knowledge and the validity of the
sources through which we gain information.

Epistemology seeks answers to a number of fundamental issues. One is whether reality
can even be known. Skepticism in its narrow sense is the position claiming that people cannot
acquire reliable knowledge and that any search for truth is in vain. That thought was well expressed
by Gorgias (c. 483-376 B.C.), the Greek Sophist who asserted that nothing exists, and that if it
did, we could not know it. A full-blown skepticism would make intelligent action impossible. A
term closely related to skepticism is agnosticism. Agnosticism is a profession of ignorance in
reference to the existence or nonexistence of God.

Most people claim that reality can be known. However, once they have taken that position,
they must decide through what sources reality may be known, and must have some concept of
how to judge the validity of their knowledge. A second issue foundational to epistemology is
whether all truth is relative, or whether some truths are absolute. Is all truth subject to change?
Is it possible that what is true today may be false tomorrow? If the answer is “Yes” to the
previous questions, such truths are relative. If, however, there is Absolute Truth, such Truth is
eternally and universally true irrespective of time or place. If Absolute Truth exists in the universe,
then educators would certainly want to discover it and make it the core of the school curriculum.
Closely related to the issue of the relativity and absoluteness of truth are the questions of whether
knowledge is subjective or objective, and whether there is truth that is independent of human
experience.
A major aspect of epistemology relates to the sources of human knowledge. If one accepts
the fact that there is truth and even Truth in the universe, how can human beings comprehend
such truths? How do they become human knowledge? Central to most people’s answer to that
question is empiricism (knowledge obtained through the senses). Empirical knowledge appears
to be built into the very nature of human experience. Thus, when individuals walk out of doors on
a spring day and see the beauty of the landscape, hear the song of a bird, feel the warm rays of
the sun, and smell the fragrance of the blossoms, they “know” that it is spring. Sensory knowing
for humans is immediate and universal, and in many ways forms the basis of much of human
knowledge.
The existence of sensory data cannot be denied. Most people accept it uncritically as
representing “reality.” The danger of naively embracing this approach is that data obtained from
the human senses have been demonstrated to be both incomplete and undependable. (For example,
most people have been confronted with the contradiction of seeing a stick that looks bent when
partially submerged in water but appears to be straight when examined in the air.) Fatigue,
frustration, and illness also distort and limit sensory perception. In addition, there are sound and
light waves that are inaudible and invisible to unaided human perception.
Humans have invented scientific instruments to extend the range of their senses, but it is
impossible to ascertain the exact dependability of these instruments since no one knows the total
effect of the human mind in recording, interpreting, and distorting sensual perception. Confidence
in these instruments is built upon speculative metaphysical theories whose validity has been
reinforced by experimentation in which predictions have been verified through the use of a
theoretical construct or hypothesis.
In summary, sensory knowledge is built upon assumptions that must be accepted by faith in
the dependability of human sensory mechanisms. The advantage of empirical knowledge is that
many sensory experiences and experiments are open to both replication and public examination.
A second influential source of knowledge throughout the span of human history has been
revelation. Revealed knowledge has been of prime importance in the field of religion. It differs
from all other sources of knowledge because it presupposes a transcendent supernatural reality
that breaks into the natural order. Christians believe that such revelation is God’s communication
concerning the divine will. Believers in supernatural revelation hold that this form of knowledge
has the distinct advantage of being an omniscient source of information that is not available
through other epistemological methods. The truth revealed through this source is believed by
Christians to be absolute and uncontaminated. On the other hand, it is generally realized that
distortion of revealed truth can occur in the process of human interpretation. Some people assert
that a major disadvantage of revealed knowledge is that it must be accepted by faith and cannot
be proved or disproved empirically.
A third source of human knowledge is authority. Authoritative knowledge is accepted as
true because it comes from experts or has been sanctified over time as tradition. In the classroom,
the most common source of information is some authority, such as a textbook, teacher, or
reference work. Accepting authority as a source of knowledge has its advantages as well as its
dangers. Civilization would certainly stagnate if people refused to accept any statement unless
they personally verified it through direct, firsthand experience. On the other hand, if authoritative
knowledge is built upon a foundation of incorrect assumptions, then such knowledge will surely
be distorted.
A fourth source of human knowledge is reason. The view that reasoning, thought, or logic
is the central factor in knowledge is known as rationalism. The rationalist, in emphasizing
humanity’s power of thought and the mind’s contributions to knowledge, is likely to claim that the
senses alone cannot provide universal, valid judgments that are consistent with one another.
From this perspective, the sensations and experiences humans obtain through their senses are
the raw material of knowledge. These sensations must be organized by the mind into a meaningful
system before they become knowledge. Rationalism in a less extreme form claims that people
have the power to know with certainty various truths about the universe that the senses alone
cannot give. In its more extreme form, rationalism claims that humans are capable of arriving at
irrefutable knowledge independently of sensory experience. Formal logic is a tool used by
rationalists. Systems of logic have the advantage of possessing internal consistency, but they risk
being disconnected from the external world. Systems of thought based upon logic are only as
valid as the premises upon which they are built.
A fifth source of knowledge is intuition- the direct apprehension of knowledge that is not
derived from conscious reasoning or immediate sense perception. In the literature dealing with
intuition, one often finds such expressions as “immediate feeling of certainty.” Intuition occurs
beneath the threshold of consciousness and is often experienced as a sudden flash of insight. In
tuition has been claimed under varying circum - stances as a source of both religious and secular
knowledge. Certainly many scientific breakthroughs have been initiated by intuitive hunches that
were confirmed by experimentation.
The weakness or danger of intuition is that it does not appear to be a safe method of
obtaining knowledge when used alone. It goes astray very easily and may lead to absurd claims
unless it is controlled by or checked against other methods of knowing. Intuitive knowledge,
however, has the distinct advantage of being able to bypass the limitations of human experience.
At this juncture, it should be noted that no one source of information is capable of supplying
people with all knowledge. The various sources should be seen as complementary rather than
antagonistic. It is true, however, that most people choose one source as being more basic than,
or preferable to, the others. That most basic source is then used as a benchmark for testing other
sources of knowledge. For example, in the contemporary world, knowledge obtained empirically
is generally seen as the most basic and reliable type.

what is metaphysics? what are Its branches

The term ‘metaphysics’ is derived from two Greek words ‘meta’ (after)
or (beyond) and ‘physics’ (physics) literally it means ‘after or beyond
physics’. And it originated with Andronicus, the editor of Aristotle’s
works. After arranging the collection of Aristotle’s works dealing with
physics, he did not know what to call the other works that followed. He
then decided to simply call them ‘after physics’ (metaphysics).

Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that studies the ultimate nature of reality or
existence. It asks questions such as ‘What exists?’ or ‘What is real?’ Metaphysicians seek an
irreducible foundation of reality or ‘first principles’ from which absolute knowledge or truth can
be induced and deduced.

At first, questions like, ‘What is real?’ seem too simple to bother asking. But consider
George Knight’s example about the existence of a floor and one will see that the question has far
reaching implications: What is exactly the nature of the floor upon which you stand? It may seem
to have a rather straightforward existence. It is obviously flat, solid, and smooth; it has a particular
color; it is composed of an identifiable material, such as wood or concrete; and it supports your
weight…Suppose, however, that a physicist enters the room and is questioned about the reality of
the floor. She will reply that the floor is made of molecules; that molecules consist of atoms,
electrons, protons, and neutrons; and these, finally, of electric energy alone. A third position…is
offered by a passing chemist…To him the floor is a hotbed of hydrocarbons associated in a
particular way and subject to certain kinds of environmental influences, such as heat, cold,
wetness, dryness, and oxidation.

Its main branches are as follows:
(i) Cosmogony. This is a study of creation. Is the world created, or is it eternal? How was world created? Why was it created? Who created the world? What is the purpose in creation? All these are the problems of cosmogony.
(ii) Cosmology. The main problems of cosmology are: Is the world one or it many, or is it both one and many?
(iii) Ontology. Ontology is the study of ultimate reality. Is the reality one or is it many or is it both one and many? If reality is many, what is the relation between these many elements? All these are ontological questions.
(iv) Philosophy of self. This is mainly concerned with the philosophical analysis of self. What is self? What is its relation with the body? Is it free of does it depend on the body? Is it one or many? All these are problems of philosophy of self.
(v) Eschatology. The discussion of the condition of soul after death, the nature of the other world, etc., form the subject matter of this branch of philosophy.

PHILOSPHY AND EDUCATION

The word philosophy is derived from the Greek words philia (Loving) and sophia (Wisdom) and means" the love of wisdom".Philosophy in a general sense is conceived a person’s “sum of his fundamental beliefs and convictions”. We have some ideas concerning physical objects, our fellow persons, the meaning of life, death, God, right and wrong, beauty and ugliness, and the like. Of course, these ideas are acquired in a variety of ways, and they may be vague and confused. Philosophy is a guide for  living; because the issues it addresses are basic and pervasive, determining the course we take in life. Hence we can say that all the aspects of human life are influenced and governed by the  philosophical consideration.


Philosophy is a personal attitude to life and the universe. When a person goes through some unusual experience, we often inquire, "How does he take it?" Or we often declare, "He takes it philosophically". The mature philosophical attitude is the searching and critical attitude, it is the open minded, tolerant attitude expressed in the willingness to look at all sides of an issue. It does not shrink from facing the difficult and unresolved problems of life.

philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, truth, beauty, law, justice, validity, mind, and language. Moreover, philosophy is rationally thinking, of a more or less systematic kind about the general nature of the world – metaphysics or theory of existence, the justification of belief - epistemology or theory of knowledge, and the conduct of life - ethics or theory of value.

As teachers, you might face numerous posers from your students. They may declare, 'Sir, this course is too argumentative, it is nothing short of mudslinging among scholars'. Of course, it may sound tautological, monotonous etc., to many among learners but its relevance cannot be over emphasised.

 It encourages critical examination of issues and justification for•
actions.
 It equips teachers with the ideas required for educational reforms•
and considers those changes to be based on the analysis of current
practices in education in line with the values of the society.
 Educational philosophy tends to provide an insight of what•
education is and the role education should perform at the various
stages of growth and for what category of learners.
 It gives more weight to the validity or soundness of arguments•
than to the authority of the person arguing a case, thereby
disregarding prejudice and personal interests.
 It has an humbling effect, in other words, it compels one to keep•
an open mind on evidence/findings that may render ones previous
opinion less valuable.
 It puts forth the various schools of thought about education as a•
discipline to develop and inculcate knowledge, skills and ability
through training in humans for welfare of the individual and the
society.
 it gives the teacher a deeper understanding of the various•
hypotheses put forward by the classical and modern schools of
thought in order to develop the best approaches to education.

What is Cooperative Learning?
Cooperative or collaborative learning is a team process where members support and rely on each other to achieve an agreed-upon goal. The classroom is an excellent place to develop team-building skills you will need later in life. Cooperative learning is a successful teaching strategy in which small teams, each with students of different levels of ability, use a variety of learning activities to improve their understanding of a subject. Each member of a team is responsible not only for learning what is taught but also for helping teammates learn, thus creating an atmosphere of achievement. Students work through the assignment until all group members successfully understand and complete it. Cooperative / collaborative learning is interactive; as a team member, the student teacher : Develops and shares a common goal Contributes his/her understanding of the problem: questions; insights and solutions Responds to, and works to understand, others' questions, insights and solutions Empowers the other to speak and contribute, and to consider their contributions Is accountable to others, and they are accountable to him/her Is dependent on others, and they depend on him/her .

Elements of Cooperative Learning : The conditions/elements that will ensure more productive than competitive and individualistic efforts are:
1. Positive Interdependence
 Each group member's efforts are required and indispensable for group success
Each group member has a unique contribution to make to the joint effort because of his or her resources and/or role and task responsibilities

multimedia

Multimedia
Multimedia is a term frequently heard and discussed among educational technologists today. Unless clearly defined, the term can alternately mean .a judicious mix of various mass media such as print, audio and video or it may mean the development of computer-based hardware and software packages produced on a mass scale and yet allow individualized use and learning. In essence, multimedia merges multiple levels of learning into an educational tool that allows for diversity in curricula presentation.
According Fenrich, 1997 Multimedia is the exciting combination of computer hardware and software that allows you to integrate video, animation, audio, graphics, and test resources to develop effective presentations on an affordable desktop computer.
Multimedia is characterized by the presence of text, pictures, sound, animation and video; some or all of which are organized into some coherent program. (Phillips, 1997).
Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, the concept of multimedia took on a new meaning, as the capabilities of satellites, computers, audio and video converged to create new media with enormous potential. Combined with the advances in hardware and software, these technologies were able to provide enhanced learning facility and with attention to the specific needs of individual users. A primary application of the interactive multimedia for instruction is in an instructional situation where the learner is given control so that he/she may review the material at his or her own pace and in keeping with his/her own individual interests, needs, and cognitive processes. The basic objective of interactive multimedia material is not s much to replace the teacher as to change the teacher’s role entirely. As such multimedia must be extremely well designed and sophisticated enough to mimic the best teacher, by combining in its design the various elements of the cognitive processes and the best quality of the technology. With today’s multimedia courseware, once a programme has been designed and built in with the appropriate responses, it should be flexible and permit change and alteration.
Today’s multimedia is a carefully woven combination of text, graphic art, sound, animation, and video elements. When you allow an end user, i.e. the viewer of a multimedia project, to control ‘what’ and ‘when’ and ‘how’ of the elements that are delivered and presented, it becomes interactive multimedia.

Benefits to Learners
● Work at own pace and control their learning path
● Learn from an infinitely patient tutor
● Actively pursue learning and receive feedback
Benefits to Teachers
● Allows for creative work
● Saves time for more challenging topics
● Replaces ineffective learning activities
● Increases student contact time for discussion
Specific uses of multimedia include:
● Drill and practice to master basic skills
● The development of writing skills
● Problem solving
● Understanding abstract mathematics and science concepts
● Simulation in science and mathematics
● Manipulation of data
● Acquisition of computer Skills for general
● Purposes, and for business and vocational training
● Access and communication to understand populations and students
● Access for teachers and students in remote locations
● Individualized and cooperative learning
● Management and administration of classroom activities

Classroom management

Successful classroom management is defined as producing a high rate of work involvement with a low rate of deviancy in academic settings.
 To some extent teachers control their instructional effectiveness in the classroom. A passive teacher simply relies on the same old teaching techniques. As compare to him an active teacher plans different teaching strategic and techniques in order to motivate the students and to achieve more success in teaching.
 Different teaching techniques provide change for the teachers and minimize disturbances and make sure that instruction can proceed efficiently; they set up their rooms according to the following principles:
1) Teachers should be able to see all students at all times.
 2) Teaching materials and supplies are readily available.
 3) High – traffic areas should be free of congestion.
 4) Students should be able to see instructional presentations.
5) Procedures and routines should be actively taught in the same way that academic content is taught.

 Time Management Skill

 Academic learning time in the classroom is an important factor in keeping the classroom discipline. A teacher’s quick and efficient calls/instructions can vary the time allotted to all classroom activities. The time spent on taking start, handle digressions, off-task behaviour, discipline have an ultimate effect on student learning. Student who spends more time on academic content learns more and receives higher achievement scores. It is important to allocate adequate time to academic content. Making time schedules is not enough, but the proper use of this allocated time leads towards student achievement. In order to study the use of classroom times, researchers have developed the following terms to allocated time, engaged time, and academic learning time.

- Allocated time is the amount of time a teacher scheduled for a subject for example, 30 minutes a day for mathematics. The more time allocated for a subject, the higher student achievement in that subject is likely to be. - Engaged time is that part of allocated time in which students are actively involved with academic subject matter (really listening to a lecture, participating in the class discussion, writing a composition, and working on mathematics problems). - Academic learning time is engaged time with a high success rate. Many researchers suggest that students should get 70 to 80 percent of the answers right when working with a teacher. Teachers who effectively provide and manage academic learning time in their classrooms can determine student achievement. Effective classroom managers are nearly always good planners. They do not become late; handle the situation after noise and disruption. They teach the rules about appropriate student behaviour.
Seating arrangement
Arrangements of space and furniture that cluster students together or hinder the teacher’s view make teaching more difficult. Seating arrangement must depend on type of lesson to be taught, and the type of classroom furniture.
Each teacher needs to know the appropriate seats of all students. A seating plan helps the teacher to learn names easily.
Proper arrangement of furniture also contributes to the smooth running of classrooms functions. According to Anderson (1991) desks, chairs and tables can be arranged in a variety of ways; light and temperature can be increased or decreased. Paint wall coverings, art work and plants can be used to enhance or detract from the attractiveness of the physical classroom environment.
Discipline in the classroom
Discipline in the classroom involves using guidance and teaching techniques. Discipline creates an atmosphere conducive to learning and encourages students to become self directive.
The teacher must fairly examine the reasons of individual student behavior, and then he can plan intelligently how to prevent disciplinary violations before they occur. If violations occurs, appropriate steps can be taken so that as little injury as possible is done to the learning process. Discipline rules should be posted in the classroom for all to see in order to create a classroom environment with maximum productive time utilization.

ROLE OF TEACHER FOR CONDUCIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

Teaching is a multifaceted profession. The teachers have to perform many roles other than the process of teaching and imparting information to the students. They take up vital places in the lives of the students in their classrooms. Mainly they set the tone of their classrooms, build a warm environment, and take care of students by looking for any sign of trouble. They become role models for the students.
The role of a teacher in the classroom as a leader is to lead students, and families. The classroom teacher is responsible for creating a positive and disciplined learning environment:
– in the classroom
– in co-curricular activities
– in interacting informally with students
In this way, each student is challenged to grow in knowledge and maturity, according to his potential, in all aspects of his life.

The classroom teacher is responsible for:
- Promoting the mission and philosophy of the School/College through structured classroom prayer, participation in the educational life of the College, and modelling of appropriate standards of behaviour.
- Maintaining a positive and effective learning environment through well prepared lessons, which cater a wide range of student abilities and interests.
- Setting of realistic and challenging academic standards of student performance.
- A challenging and realistic program of student homework.
- A comprehensive attention to students work submitted for marking and supervision.
- Demonstrating knowledge, competence and confidence in the relevant subject discipline.
- Demonstrating high levels of professionalism in all activities.
Let us have a detailed look on teacher’s roles as teachers serve many other roles in the classroom:


The most common role of the teacher in the classroom is to teach knowledge to children. Teachers are given a curriculum they must follow that meets state guidelines. This curriculum is followed by the teacher so that complete knowledge is conveyed to the students in the given time (academic year). Teachers teach in many ways, such as lectures, small group activities and hands-on learning activities.

Teachers play an important role in making the classroom environment either positive or negative. Students often imitate a teacher's actions. If the teacher prepares a warm, happy environment, then students will also be happy. The teachers are responsible for the social behavior in their classrooms. This behavior is primarily a reflection of the teacher's actions and the environment she/he sets.

Students spend a great deal of time with their teacher and their teacher becomes a role model to them. This can be a positive or negative effect depending on the teacher. Teachers not only teach the children, but also love and take care for them. Therefore teachers are respected by the community and become a role model to students and parents.


Mentoring is a natural role played by the teachers. Mentoring is a way by which a teacher encourages students to do the best they can. This also includes encouraging students to enjoy learning. Listening to students carefully is the part of mentoring. By taking time to listen to what students say, teachers impart to students a sense of ownership in the classroom. This helps build their confidence and helps them want to be successful.

As a protector, teacher looks for signs of trouble in the students. When students' behaviors change and any sign of physical abuse are noticed, teachers are required to look into the problem and solve it as per rules.