An Historical Background Socrates (470-399 BC)
Socrates was born about the year 470 BC. His father was a sculptor while his mother was a midwife. His goal in life was to be a philosopher (teacher) and he indeed later became one of the first Athenian teachers. He did not put his thought into writing. But most of what was known about him is from the writing of two of his disciples - Xenophon and Plato.
Socrates lived a humble, disciplined and upright life. As Plato wrote about him, he was “the best of all of his time that we have known and more over the most wise and just”. You can see that his students liked him. He was a man who holds strongly to what he thinks is right and without changing his opinion.
THE DIALECTICAL METHOD
About the words of Socrates, Plato said, "You will find his words first full of sense, as no others are; next, most divine and containing the finest images of virtue, and reaching farthest, in fact reaching to everything which it profits a man to study who is to become noble and good."
Unlike most philosophers, Socrates did not wish to influence others by his views; he did not wish to convince them about the validity and correctness of his views. Rather he wanted that everybody should be his own philosopher; should be critical and think for himself. He was convinced that every person had in him the germ for rational thought and the aim of philosophy was to bring rational thought to full blossom in everyone. The tendency among philosophers to persuade others to believe that their views are more valid gives rise to schools and controversies in philosophy. Socrates, on the contrary, did not wish to convert others to his views nor did he wish to propagate a set of philosophical views. He only wanted to draw attention of others to the crucial significance of philosophy for the life and inculcate in them a love for philosophy, that is, love of wisdom. The approach of Socrates is known as mimetic approach that is intellectual midwifery. As a midwife delivers a child of pregnant woman, Socrates wanted to bring to surface the germ of rational thought and critical inquiry. The whole approach of Socrates is summed up in two words—Dialectical Method.
Socrates was fully conscious of the value of knowledge. According to him, "Knowledge is virtue". Knowledge is vision of universal truths. To discover this knowledge Socrates used dialectical method. Though he invented and used dialectical method he has nowhere given a systematic description of this method. He did not commit his ideas to writing. His style of developing philosophical ideas was unique. He used to go down the market place and would draw philosophically inclined persons to discuss with him the real and objective meaning of such simple concepts as friendship, love, courage, virtue etc. In the course of his dialogue he would let people know that what he was interested in was not the conventional meaning but the real and objective meaning of the concepts. Thus he would direct the course of conversation. This method was dialectical because to all proposed meanings and definitions of concepts, Socrates would bring out the defects in them and thus persuade his interlocutor to modify his definition to rectify the defects pointed. This procedure of point and counterpoint would go on till a really satisfactory definition was found.
Thus dialectic was a means of discovery of objective and valid definitions of concepts familiarly used in daily life. It is not the condition of dialectical argument that the domain of the argument should be confined to the concept being discussed. It is indeed considered desirable to examine the allied and other concepts if classification of the concept in question calls for such a discussion.
SALIENT FEATURES OF DIALECTICAL METHOD
Following are the salient features of this method:
1. Methodological Doubt. Socrates used to begin his conversation by pretending ignorance about the real meaning of a concept and wanted others to enlighten him on the subject. This pretence of ignorance is known as Socratic Irony in as much as Socrates exposed others to be ignorant and himself wise in spite of his earlier declaration to the contrary. Some scholars have criticized Socrates for concealing the truth that he knew the answer. This could only mean that he wished to humiliate his opponent. But such criticism is mistaken. The negativistic approach to the problem adopted by Socrates was really meant to let his interlocutors to exercise their minds and develop interest in the inquiry. Had he given a positive answer to begin with, others may have thus been defeated. As his purpose was to encourage in others to think independently, he found it a useful procedure to feign initial ignorance and let others present their views and not be carried away by the Socratic authority. The dialectical method is essentially based on methodological doubt, that is, a critical examination of the problem concerned. The critical examination and doubt about the validity of current beliefs is not scepticism for the sake of scepticism, but, on the contrary, it is a means and method to reach the truth and a safeguard against being duped easily. A man who questions and has an enquiring mind can alone be a philosopher, because people mostly have a strong will to believe and are very gullible. Only by constantly critical attitude can this natural tendency be countered.
2. Conversational. Another feature of the method which Socrates used is the use of dialogue or conversation for the development of ideas. A dialogue or conversation allows exchange of ideas; and it is only by certain tension and conflict of ideas that the thought is refined and developed. A lecture or an essay is quite suitable for passing on scientific information. But philosophy is something other information. Therefore, for the unfoldment and development of philosophical ideas, it is essential that there should be a meeting of minds and exchange of ideas. This is possible only in philosophical conversation. That is why Plato, a disciple of Socrates, follows the dramatic form to develop his ideas. This allows for expression of various aspects of a problem.
3. This feature of Socratic Method is also referred to as intellectual midwifery. The stimulation and incentive provided by an engaged conversation usually helps to bring to surface the latent ideas in the minds of men. Therefore, as a midwife delivers a child from the womb of the mother, intellectual converse delivers the latent ideas from the four walls of the unconscious mind.
4. Conceptual and Semantic Socrates used to stress the need for correct and precise of definitions of the concepts. Like modern logical positivists and linguists, Socrates realised the paramount need for giving precise connotation and meaning to the concepts used in philosophy. In order to determine the meaning of a concept we have to abstract the general and universal features of things from their particular and individual aspects. Socrates tried to find precise meaning of the concepts like "justice", "courage", "companion", "knowledge", "virtue", "friendship", "love", etc. As the main emphasis of Socrates in philosophy is upon the correct and precise use of the concepts, he did not do what modern semantics tries to do today.
5. Empirical or Inductive. The subject matter of philosophic conversation of Socrates was provided by day-to-day affairs. This enquiry was always connected with some specific and concrete problem. For example, Socrates would urge others to define what is the meaning of friendship and by examining various forms of friendship try to discover something common to all of them. Therefore, the enquiry of Socrates was both empirical and inductive.
6. Deductive. Lastly, the enquiry of Socrates has the feature of being deductive. Though Socrates used to begin his enquiry with common place definition and examine all the popular ideas, his aim was the attainment of objective and universal truths. Therefore, he was not satisfied till he was able to establish deductively certain truths.
7. To sum up, the dialectical method as employed by Socrates clearly displays the characteristics of
1. Methodological doubt;
2. Intellectual dialogue;
3. Semantic precision, and
4. Deductive and inductive determination of truth
Socrates was born about the year 470 BC. His father was a sculptor while his mother was a midwife. His goal in life was to be a philosopher (teacher) and he indeed later became one of the first Athenian teachers. He did not put his thought into writing. But most of what was known about him is from the writing of two of his disciples - Xenophon and Plato.
Socrates lived a humble, disciplined and upright life. As Plato wrote about him, he was “the best of all of his time that we have known and more over the most wise and just”. You can see that his students liked him. He was a man who holds strongly to what he thinks is right and without changing his opinion.
THE DIALECTICAL METHOD
About the words of Socrates, Plato said, "You will find his words first full of sense, as no others are; next, most divine and containing the finest images of virtue, and reaching farthest, in fact reaching to everything which it profits a man to study who is to become noble and good."
Unlike most philosophers, Socrates did not wish to influence others by his views; he did not wish to convince them about the validity and correctness of his views. Rather he wanted that everybody should be his own philosopher; should be critical and think for himself. He was convinced that every person had in him the germ for rational thought and the aim of philosophy was to bring rational thought to full blossom in everyone. The tendency among philosophers to persuade others to believe that their views are more valid gives rise to schools and controversies in philosophy. Socrates, on the contrary, did not wish to convert others to his views nor did he wish to propagate a set of philosophical views. He only wanted to draw attention of others to the crucial significance of philosophy for the life and inculcate in them a love for philosophy, that is, love of wisdom. The approach of Socrates is known as mimetic approach that is intellectual midwifery. As a midwife delivers a child of pregnant woman, Socrates wanted to bring to surface the germ of rational thought and critical inquiry. The whole approach of Socrates is summed up in two words—Dialectical Method.
Socrates was fully conscious of the value of knowledge. According to him, "Knowledge is virtue". Knowledge is vision of universal truths. To discover this knowledge Socrates used dialectical method. Though he invented and used dialectical method he has nowhere given a systematic description of this method. He did not commit his ideas to writing. His style of developing philosophical ideas was unique. He used to go down the market place and would draw philosophically inclined persons to discuss with him the real and objective meaning of such simple concepts as friendship, love, courage, virtue etc. In the course of his dialogue he would let people know that what he was interested in was not the conventional meaning but the real and objective meaning of the concepts. Thus he would direct the course of conversation. This method was dialectical because to all proposed meanings and definitions of concepts, Socrates would bring out the defects in them and thus persuade his interlocutor to modify his definition to rectify the defects pointed. This procedure of point and counterpoint would go on till a really satisfactory definition was found.
Thus dialectic was a means of discovery of objective and valid definitions of concepts familiarly used in daily life. It is not the condition of dialectical argument that the domain of the argument should be confined to the concept being discussed. It is indeed considered desirable to examine the allied and other concepts if classification of the concept in question calls for such a discussion.
SALIENT FEATURES OF DIALECTICAL METHOD
Following are the salient features of this method:
1. Methodological Doubt. Socrates used to begin his conversation by pretending ignorance about the real meaning of a concept and wanted others to enlighten him on the subject. This pretence of ignorance is known as Socratic Irony in as much as Socrates exposed others to be ignorant and himself wise in spite of his earlier declaration to the contrary. Some scholars have criticized Socrates for concealing the truth that he knew the answer. This could only mean that he wished to humiliate his opponent. But such criticism is mistaken. The negativistic approach to the problem adopted by Socrates was really meant to let his interlocutors to exercise their minds and develop interest in the inquiry. Had he given a positive answer to begin with, others may have thus been defeated. As his purpose was to encourage in others to think independently, he found it a useful procedure to feign initial ignorance and let others present their views and not be carried away by the Socratic authority. The dialectical method is essentially based on methodological doubt, that is, a critical examination of the problem concerned. The critical examination and doubt about the validity of current beliefs is not scepticism for the sake of scepticism, but, on the contrary, it is a means and method to reach the truth and a safeguard against being duped easily. A man who questions and has an enquiring mind can alone be a philosopher, because people mostly have a strong will to believe and are very gullible. Only by constantly critical attitude can this natural tendency be countered.
2. Conversational. Another feature of the method which Socrates used is the use of dialogue or conversation for the development of ideas. A dialogue or conversation allows exchange of ideas; and it is only by certain tension and conflict of ideas that the thought is refined and developed. A lecture or an essay is quite suitable for passing on scientific information. But philosophy is something other information. Therefore, for the unfoldment and development of philosophical ideas, it is essential that there should be a meeting of minds and exchange of ideas. This is possible only in philosophical conversation. That is why Plato, a disciple of Socrates, follows the dramatic form to develop his ideas. This allows for expression of various aspects of a problem.
3. This feature of Socratic Method is also referred to as intellectual midwifery. The stimulation and incentive provided by an engaged conversation usually helps to bring to surface the latent ideas in the minds of men. Therefore, as a midwife delivers a child from the womb of the mother, intellectual converse delivers the latent ideas from the four walls of the unconscious mind.
4. Conceptual and Semantic Socrates used to stress the need for correct and precise of definitions of the concepts. Like modern logical positivists and linguists, Socrates realised the paramount need for giving precise connotation and meaning to the concepts used in philosophy. In order to determine the meaning of a concept we have to abstract the general and universal features of things from their particular and individual aspects. Socrates tried to find precise meaning of the concepts like "justice", "courage", "companion", "knowledge", "virtue", "friendship", "love", etc. As the main emphasis of Socrates in philosophy is upon the correct and precise use of the concepts, he did not do what modern semantics tries to do today.
5. Empirical or Inductive. The subject matter of philosophic conversation of Socrates was provided by day-to-day affairs. This enquiry was always connected with some specific and concrete problem. For example, Socrates would urge others to define what is the meaning of friendship and by examining various forms of friendship try to discover something common to all of them. Therefore, the enquiry of Socrates was both empirical and inductive.
6. Deductive. Lastly, the enquiry of Socrates has the feature of being deductive. Though Socrates used to begin his enquiry with common place definition and examine all the popular ideas, his aim was the attainment of objective and universal truths. Therefore, he was not satisfied till he was able to establish deductively certain truths.
7. To sum up, the dialectical method as employed by Socrates clearly displays the characteristics of
1. Methodological doubt;
2. Intellectual dialogue;
3. Semantic precision, and
4. Deductive and inductive determination of truth
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